CARPET BUSTERS / CB RESTORATION
WWW.FLOODSUPPORT.COM
1-877-71-FLOOD
24/7 Emergency Service PA DE NJ MD 19601, 19602, 19603, 19604, 19605, 19606, 19607, 19608, 19609, 19610, 19611, 19612, 19640.
Read more: http://www.floodsupport.com 1-877-713-5663
We are a family owned business. We are not a National Franchise, and we care about our customers. We understand the emotional, financial, and physical strains that fires and floods can cause on a person's life. We are here to help you through this difficult time. We will get your home back in order, deal with your insurance company directly, and bring some peace back to these hectic times. 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. If you need us, we are there.
Preparing for a flood is very important, but you should also prepare for handling the aftermath of the storm. Flood damage is a like a time bomb, and to prevent mold or structural damage you must do everything you can to quickly and concisely and as soon as possible. To help you learn how to handle this situation, we've put together this list of what to do after a household flood.
1. Do Not Re-Enter
After leaving the flooded home, do not re-enter until trained emergency workers tell you it is safe. Floodwaters can harm or damage the foundation of your home and make it an unsafe structure to reenter.
2. Take Caution When Eating
Don't eat or drink anything that has been in contact with flood water. Flood water can and usually does contain unsanitary materials and residue which is not safe to ingest.
3. Remove Water Blockage
If you put sandbags or other blocks around your home to keep water out, remember they may also be holding water in after the flood. If the structure is safe, open windows, doors, and remove blocks to let some water out. Only approach or touch flood water or flooded areas in proper attire, (gloves, mask, boots, water proof jacket, goggles, etc).
4. Flood Insurance
If you had flood insurance, don't move or touch anything until you've contacted them. This is because they must come and observe and assess the damage in it's original state. Also be sure not to throw out anything that should be checked by the insurance associates as well.
5. Take Pictures
As hard as it is, having thorough documentation of the flood is likely to come in handy. Go throughout the home and take pictures of any and all flood-damaged areas. Check ceilings, walls, and floors diligently to make sure you don't miss a thing.
6. Watch The Kids!
It is imperative not to let children play or touch anything that floodwater has. Even if the floodwater resigns from an area, that area still has infectious bacteria that are dangerous to you and yours. Be sure to sit children down and thoroughly discuss and explain the dangers of floods, floodwater and the aftermath.
7. If You Must Leave
If for any reason you need to leave your flood-damaged home (to go to a hotel, friends, or get something to eat) be sure to secure the house before you leave. Lock all windows and doors, and try to cover up and holes or unstable structure. Although it's regrettable, looters have been known to target flooded areas for undamaged materials in unsupervised homes.
8. Call A Professional 1-877-71-Flood www.floodsupport.com
If you're unsure about the water damage to your home or have water still residing in the basement or other area, call in some help. Water damage specialists can help you with a multitude of things from assessing damage, to removing water, to cleaning up the mess it leaves. Your insurance may even pay for this work as it's preventive work that could save them money
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We Service All Of Chester County, Delaware County, Montgomery County, Philadelphia, NJ www.floodsupport.com toll Free 1-877-713-5663
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Flood Clean Up & Water Damage Control -1-877-71-flood Atlanta,Ga baltimore,maryland washington,dC PHILADELPHIA,Pa Wildwood,new jersey
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Posted by flood supportCarpetbuster/Cb Restoration Fire Water & Mold Damage Specialist 24hr at 5:25 AM
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Water damage describes a large number of possible losses caused by water intruding where it will enable attack of a material or system by destructive processes such as rotting of wood, growth, rusting of steel, de-laminating of materials such as plywood , and many, many others.
The damage may be imperceptibly slow and minor such as water spots that could eventually m ar a surface, or it may be instantaneous and catastrophic such as flooding. However fast it occurs, water damage is a very major contributor to loss of property.
One's homeowner's insurance policy may or may not cover the costs associated with water damage and the process of water damage restoration. While a common cause of residential water damage is often the failure of a sump pump, many homeowner's insurance policies do not cover the associated costs without an addendum which adds to the monthly premium of the policy. Often the verbiage of this addendum is similar to "Sewer and Drain Coverage."
Those individuals who are affected by wide scale flooding may have the ability to apply for government and FEMA grants through the Individual Assistance program.[1] On a larger level, businesses, cities, and communities can apply to the FEMA Public Assistance program for funds to assist after a large flood. For example, the city of Fond du Lac Wisconsin received $1.2 million FEMA grant after flooding in June 2008. The program allows the city to purchase the water damaged properties, demolish the structures, and turn the properties into public green space.[2]
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes
2 Categories
3 Classes
4 Restoration
5 Health hazards
6 References
[edit] Causes
Water damage can originate by different sources such as: broken dishwasher hose, washing machine overflow, dishwasher leakage, broken pipes, clogged toilet, leaking roof, moisture behind walls, foundation cracks, plumbing leaks, and bad weather (snow, rain, floods). As far as insurance coverage is concerned, most damage caused by bad weather is concidered flood damage and normally isn't covered under homeowners insurance. Coverage for bad weather would usually required flood insurance.
[edit] Categories
Water damage is typically classified into one of the following three categories:[3]
Category 1 Water - Refers to a source of water that does not pose substantial threat to humans and classified as "Clean Water". Examples are broken water supply lines, tub or sink overflows or appliance malfunctions that involves water supply lines.
Category 2 Water - Refers to a source of water that contains a significant degree of chemical, biological or physical contaminants and causes discomfort or sickness when exposed or even consumed. Known as "Grey Water". This type carries micro organisms and nutrients of micro organisms. Examples are toilet bowls with urine (no feces), sump pump failures, seepage due to hydrostatic failure and water discharge from dishwashers or washing machines.
Category 3 Water - Known as "Black Water" and are grossly unsanitary. This water contains unsanitary agents, harmful bacteria and fungi, causing severe discomfort or sickness. Type 3 category are contaminated water sources that affects the indoor environment. This category includes water sources from sewage, seawater, rising water from rivers or streams, ground surface water or standing water. Category 2 Water or Grey Water that is not promptly removed from the structure and or have remained stagnant for 48-72 hours may be re classified as Category 3 Water. Toilet back flows that originates from beyond the toilet trap is considered black water contamination regardless of visible content or color.
[edit] Classes
Class of water damage is determined by the probable rate of evaporation based on the type of materials affected, or wet, in the room or space that was flooded. Determining the Class of Water is an important first step, and will determine the amount and type of equipment utilized to dry-down the structure:.[4]
Class 1 - Slow Rate of Evaporation. Affects only a portion of a room. Materials have a low permeance/porosity. Minimum moisture is absorbed by the materials.
Class 2 - Fast Rate of Evaporation. Water affects the entire room of carpet and cushion. May have wicked up the walls, but not more than 24 inches.
Class 3 - Fastest Rate of Evaporation. Water generally comes from overhead, affecting the entire area; walls, ceilings, insulation, carpet, cushion, etc.
Class 4 - Specialty Drying Situations. Involves materials with a very low permeance/porosity, such as hardwood floors, concrete, crawlspaces, plaster, etc. Drying generally requires very low specific humidity to accomplish drying.
[edit] Restoration
Different removal methods and measures are used depending on the category of water. Due to the destructive nature of water, restoration methods also rely heavily on the amount of water, and on the amount of time the water has remained stagnant. For example, as long as carpet has not been wet for longer than 48 hours, and the water involved was not sewage based, you can usually save the carpet; however, if the water has soaked for longer, then your carpet is probably irreparable and will have to be replaced.[5] Water damage restoration can be performed by property management teams, building maintenance personnel, or by the homeowners themselves; however, contacting a certified professional water damage restoration specialist is often regarded as the safest way to restore water damaged property due to their training and extensive experience. Most are usually listed under "Fire and Water Restoration" and they can help speed repairs, whether for individual homeowners or for the largest of institutions.[6] Fire and Water Restoration companies are reg ulated by the appropriate state's Department of Consumer Affairs - usually the state contractors license board. In California, all Fire and Water Restoration companies must register with the California Contractors State License Board.[7] Presently, the California Contractors State License Board has no specific classification for "water and fire damage restoration." Hence, the Contractor's State License Board requires both an asbestos certification (ASB) as well as a demolition classification (C-21) in order to perform Fire and Water Restoration work.[8]
[edit] Health hazards
Slight discolorations on the walls and ceiling may go unnoticed for a long time as they gradually spread and get more severe. Even if they are noticed, they often are ignored because it is thought that some discoloration will occur as a part of normal wear and tear in a home. Molds spread throughout the living space leading to serious health consequences. Symptoms caused by mold allergy are watery, itchy eyes, a chronic cough, headaches or migraines, difficulty breathing, rashes, tiredness, sinus problems, nasal blockage and frequent sneezing.
[edit] References 1-877-71-FLOOD www.floodsupport.com 1-877-713-5663 exton,pa
Exton, PennsylvaniaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other places of the same name, see Exton (disambiguation).
Coordinates: 40°01?59″N 75°37?40″W? / ?40.03306°N 75.62778°W? / 40.03306; -75.62778Exton
Census-designated place
Marsh Creek Lake, located north of Exton
Country United States
State Pennsylvania
County Chester
Township West Whiteland
Elevation 312 ft (95.1 m)
Coordinates 40°01?59″N 75°37?40″W? / ?40.03306°N 75.62778°W? / 40.03306; -75.62778
Area 3.2 sq mi (8.3 km²)
- land 3.2 sq mi (8 km²)
- water 0.0 sq mi (0 km²), 0%
Population 4,842 (2010)
Density 1,513.1 / sq mi (584.2 / km²)
Timezone EST (UTC-5)
- summer (DST) EDT (UTC-4)
ZIP Code 19341
Area code 610
Location of Exton in Pennsylvania
Location of Pennsylvania in the United States
Exton is a census-designated place (CDP) in West Whiteland Township, Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States. Its population was 4,842 at the 2010 census. The Exton Square Mall is located within Exton along with several other shopping centers, making Exton the major shopping district in Chester County.
Contents [hide]
1 History
2 Geography
3 Demographics
4 Education
5 Famous residents
6 References
7 External links
[edit] HistoryExton lies at the intersection of U.S. Route 30 (formerly the Lancaster Road, and later the Lincoln Highway) and Pennsylvania Route 100 (Pottstown Pike). Beginning in the late 18th century, the Lancaster Road became a major transportation route between Philadelphia and the west, while what is now Route 100 was a regional north-south route to Pottstown. A theory exists that Exton was named as the "X" on the map, denoting this intersection, though more likely the village was named after one of the several Extons in the United Kingdom.
In the late 1940s, Exton became home to the Newcomen Society of the United States. The campus of the learned society was built overlooking farmland on Newcomen Road, and featured offices, a printing shop, library and museum, guest houses, a chapel and a belltower with a carillon. The Newcomen Society sold the property in the late 1990s, but its campus remains an Exton landmark serving as the headquarters of another business.
[edit] GeographyExton is located at 40°1?59″N 75°37?40″W? / ?40.03306°N 75.62778°W? / 40.03306; -75.62778 (40.033078, -75.627805).[1]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 3.2 square miles (8.3 km2), all of it land.
[edit] DemographicsAs of the census[2] of 2000, there were 4,267 people, 2,053 households, and 1,096 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,341.6 people per square mile (518.1/km²). There were 2,128 housing units at an average density of 669.1/sq mi (258.4/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 88.07% White, 4.05% African American, 0.14% Native American, 6.05% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.54% from other races, and 1.12% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.87% of the population.
There were 2,053 households out of which 20.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.4% were married couples living together, 5.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.6% were non-families. 37.5% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.05 and the average family size was 2.75.
In the CDP the population was spread out with 17.9% under the age of 18, 5.9% from 18 to 24, 43.3% from 25 to 44, 20.6% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 92.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.8 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $68,240, and the median income for a family was $81,499. Males had a median income of $65,789 versus $42,778 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $38,589. About 1.5% of families and 2.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.1% of those under age 18 and 10.1% of those age 65 or over.
[edit] EducationExton is served by two public school districts, Downingtown Area School District and West Chester Area School District. Downingtown Area School District's Downingtown High School East Campus and Lionville Middle School, as well as West Chester School District's Exton Elementary, are located in Exton. Other schools in Exton are the Catholic parish school Saints Philip and James and the Church Farm School. Troy University has a learning site in Exton. Exton is home to the offices of 21st Century Cyber Charter School, a statewide cyber school that is known for being the only cyber school to make Pennsylvania's AYP (Adequate Yearly Progress) benchmark 5 years in a row.[3]
[edit] Famous residentsAtlanta Falcons quarterback Matt Ryan
[edit] References^ "US Gazetteer files: 2010, 2000, and 1990". United States Census Bureau. 2011-02-12. http://www.census.gov/geo/www/gazetteer/gazette.html. Retrieved 2011-04-23.
^ "American FactFinder". United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov. Retrieved 2008-01-31.
^ 21st Century Cyber School | PSSA Scores Retrieved 2010-04-22.
[edit] External links Philadelphia portal
Pennsylvania portal
West Whiteland Township, PA
Chester County Library
[hide]v · d · eMunicipalities and communities of Chester County, Pennsylvania
County seat: West Chester
City Coatesville
Boroughs Atglen | Avondale | Downingtown | Elverson | Honey Brook | Kennett Square | Malvern | Modena | Oxford | Parkesburg | Phoenixville | South Coatesville | Spring City | West Chester | West Grove
Townships Birmingham | Caln | Charlestown | East Bradford | East Brandywine | East Caln | East Coventry | East Fallowfield | East Goshen | East Marlborough | East Nantmeal | East Nottingham | East Pikeland | East Vincent | East Whiteland | Easttown | Elk | Franklin | Highland | Honey Brook | Kennett | London Britain | London Grove | Londonderry | Lower Oxford | New Garden | New London | Newlin | North Coventry | Penn | Pennsbury | Pocopson | Sadsbury | Schuylkill | South Coventry | Thornbury | Tredyffrin | Upper Oxford | Upper Uwchlan | Uwchlan | Valley | Wallace | Warwick | West Bradford | West Brandywine | West Caln | West Fallowfield | West Goshen | West Marlborough | West Nantmeal | West Nottingham | West Pikeland | West Sadsbury | West Vincent | West Whiteland | Westtown | Willistown
CDPs Chesterbrook | Devon-Berwyn | Exton | Kenilworth | Lionville-Marchwood | Paoli | South Pottstown | Thorndale | Toughkenamon | West Goshen
Unincorporated
communities Birchrunville | Bucktown | Chester Springs | Cheyney | Cossart | Coventryville | Daylesford | Eagle | Embreeville | Ercildoun | Hopewell | Kemblesville | Kimberton | Knauertown | Landenberg | Lower Hopewell | Ludwigs Corner | Marshallton | Mortonville | Nottingham | Pughtown | Southeastern | Strafford | Strickersville | Sugartown | Unionville | Valley Forge | Wayne | Willowdale | Yellow Springs
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exton,_Pennsylvania"
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Categories: Census-designated places in Chester County, Pennsylvania
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Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Mobile view Devon-Berwyn, PennsylvaniaFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Coordinates: 40°02?37″N 75°26?10″W? / ?40.04361°N 75.43611°W? / 40.04361; -75.43611Berwyn, Pennsylvania
Census-designated place
Country United States
State Pennsylvania
County Chester
Townships Easttown and Tredyffrin
Elevation 492 ft (150 m)
Coordinates 40°02?37″N 75°26?10″W? / ?40.04361°N 75.43611°W? / 40.04361; -75.43611
Area 2.5 sq mi (6.5 km²)
- land 2.5 sq mi (6 km²)
- water 0.0 sq mi (0 km²), 0%
Population 5,067 (2000)
Density 2,028.1 / sq mi (783.1 / km²)
Timezone EST (UTC-5)
- summer (DST) EDT (UTC-4)
Area code 610
Location of Berwyn in Pennsylvania
Location of Pennsylvania in the United States
Devon-Berwyn is a census-designated place (CDP) in Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States. The population was 5,067 at the 2000 census. The area is part of Philadelphia's Main Line suburbs. Berwyn spans two townships – Tredyffrin and Easttown.[1]
Contents [hide]
1 Geography
2 Demographics
3 Culture
4 Education
5 Economy
6 Points of interest
7 References
[edit] Geography
Berwyn residential neighborhood in 2009Devon-Berwyn is located at 40°2?37″N 75°26?10″W? / ?40.04361°N 75.43611°W? / 40.04361; -75.43611 (40.043675, -75.436130).[2]
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of 2.5 square miles (6.5 km²), all of it land.
[edit] DemographicsAs of the census[3] of 2000, there were 5,067 people, 1,978 households, and 1,307 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 2,028.1 people per square mile (782.6/km²). There were 2,035 housing units at an average density of 814.5/sq mi (314.3/km²). The racial makeup of the CDP was 92.26% White, 4.52% African American, 0.16% Native American, 2.39% Asian, 0.06% from other races, and 0.61% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.14% of the population.
There were 1,978 households; of those, 29.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.8% were married couples living together, 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9% were non-families. 29.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.00.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 22.8% under the age of 18, 4.3% from 18 to 24, 27.2% from 25 to 44, 24.4% from 45 to 64, and 21.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 42 years. For every 100 females there were 89.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.7 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $74,886, and the median income for a family was $87,228. Males had a median income of $62,241 versus $39,824 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $35,551. About 1.0% of families and 4.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.0% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.
[edit] CultureThe Devon section of the CDP is known for the D
Hot Water Extraction (HWE) method, is a method used in chemistry for extraction and for "steam cleaning" (e.g. carpets. as listed by the IICRC to be the primary method for cleaning carpets. Residential, and Commercial). The pressurised hot water extraction (PHWE) process uses a combination of high water pressure for agitation, and hot water to increase reaction rate.
"Steam Cleaning"Though commonly called "Steam Cleaning", no actual steam is involved in the HWE cleaning process, apart from steam that may escape incidentally from hot water. When the cleaning solution comes in contact with the carpet/rug, it is anywhere between 120-250 degrees Fahrenheit, according to the heat available from the cleaning unit. For instance, in a modern truck-mounted carpet cleaning machine, water can be heated to 300+ degrees (F), but after passing through high pressure steel braided hose and several manifolds, the water loses much of its heat.
The typical cleaning method involves a preconditioning of the soiled surface with an alkaline (7 or above on the pH Scale) agent, followed by light agitation with a grooming brush and appropriate dwell time. Next, the surface is passed over several times with a cleaning tool (either manual or automatic) to thoroughly rinse out the preconditioner and, using an acetic acid solution, lower the pH of the fibres to a neutral state. Finally, the surface is dried sufficiently to avoid any possibility of saturation
Molds (or moulds; see spelling differences) are fungi that grow in the form of multicellular filaments called hyphae.[1] Molds are considered to be microbes but microscopic fungi that grow as single cells are called yeasts. A connected network of these tubular branching hyphae has multiple, genetically identical nuclei and is considered a single organism, referred to as a colony.
Molds do not form a specific taxonomic or phylogenetic grouping, but can be found in the divisions Zygomycota, Deuteromycota and Ascomycota. Some molds cause disease or food spoilage, others play an important role in biodegradation or in the production of various foods, beverages, antibiotics and enzymes.
Contents [hide]
1 Biology
2 Common molds
3 Food production
4 Drug creation
5 Health effects
6 Growth in buildings and homes
7 Gallery
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
[edit] BiologyThere are thousands of known species of molds which include opportunistic pathogens, saprotrophs, aquatic species, and thermophiles.[2] Like all fungi, molds derive energy not through photosynthesis but from the organic matter in which they live. Typically, molds secrete hydrolytic enzymes, mainly from the hyphal tips. These enzymes degrade complex biopolymers such as starch, cellulose and lignin into simpler substances which can be absorbed by the hyphae. In this way, molds play a major role in causing decomposition of organic material, enabling the recycling of nutrients throughout ecosystems. Many molds also secrete mycotoxins which, together with hydrolytic enzymes, inhibit the growth of competing microorganisms.
Molds reproduce through small spores,[2] which may contain a single nucleus or be multinucleate. Mold spores can be asexual (the products of mitosis) or sexual (the products of meiosis); many species can produce both types. Mold spores may remain airborne indefinitely, may cling to clothing or fur, or may be able to survive extremes of temperature and pressure.
Although molds grow on dead organic matter everywhere in nature, their presence is only visible to the unaided eye when mold colonies grow. A mold colony does not comprise discrete organisms, but an interconnected network of hyphae called a mycelium. Nutrients and in some cases organelles may be transported throughout the mycelium. In artificial environments like buildings, humidity and temperature are often stable enough to foster the growth of mold colonies, commonly seen as a downy or furry coating growing on food or other surfaces.
Many molds can begin growing at 4 °C (39 °F), the temperature within a typical refrigerator, or less. When conditions do not enable growth, molds may remain alive in a dormant state depending on the species, within a large range of temperatures before they die. The many different mold species vary enormously in their tolerance to temperature and humidity extremes. Certain molds can survive harsh conditions such as the snow-covered soils of Antarctica, refrigeration, highly acidic solvents, anti-bacterial soap and even petroleum products such as jet fuel.
Xerophilic molds use the humidity in the air as their only water source; other molds need more moisture.
[edit] Common moldsAcremonium
Aspergillus
Cladosporium
Fusarium
Mucor
Penicillium
Rhizopus
Stachybotrys
Trichoderma
Alternaria
[edit] Food productionThe Kōji (麹?) molds are a group of Aspergillus species, notably Aspergillus oryzae, and secondarily A. sojae, that have been cultured in eastern Asia for many centuries. They are used to ferment a soybean and wheat mixture to make soybean paste and soy sauce. Koji molds break down the starch in rice, barley, sweet potatoes, etc, a process called saccharification, in the production of sake, shōchū and other distilled spirits. Koji molds are also used in the preparation of Katsuobushi.
Red rice yeast is a product of the mold Monascus purpureus grown on rice, and is common in Asian diets. The yeast contains several compounds collectively known as monacolins, which are known to inhibit cholesterol synthesis.[3] According to a study published in the journal Mayo Clinic Proceedings by Dr. David Becker, red rice yeast used as a dietary supplement, combined with fish oil and healthy lifestyle changes, may help reduce "bad" cholesterol as effectively as certain commercial statin drugs.[4]
Some sausages, such as salami, use starter cultures[5] in their production, to improve flavour and reduce spoilage during curing.
Other molds that have been used in food production include:
Fusarium venenatum – quorn
Geotrichum candidum – cheese
Neurospora sitophila – oncom
Penicillium spp. – cheese
Rhizomucor miehei – rennet for making vegetarian and other cheese
Rhizopus oligosporus – tempeh
Ustilago maydis – filling in tortilla-based foods
[edit] Drug creationAlexander Fleming's famous discovery of the antibiotic penicillin involved the mold Penicillium chrysogenum.
Several cholesterol-lowering drugs (such as Lovastatin, from Aspergillus terreus) are derived from molds.
The immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine, used to suppress the rejection of transplanted organs, is derived from the mold Tolypocladium inflatum.
[edit] Health effectsMain article: Mold health issues
Molds are ubiquitous in nature, and mold spores are a common component of household and workplace dust. However, when mold spores are present in large quantities, they can present a health hazard to humans, potentially causing allergic reactions and respiratory problems.
Some molds also produce mycotoxins that can pose serious health risks to humans and animals. Some studies claim that exposure to high levels of mycotoxins can lead to neurological problems and in some cases death. Prolonged exposure, e.g. daily workplace exposure, may be particularly harmful. Research on the health effects of mold has not been conclusive. The term "toxic mold" refers to molds that produce mycotoxins, such as Stachybotrys chartarum, and not to all molds in general.[6]
Mold in the home can usually be found in damp, dark or steam filled areas e.g. bathroom or kitchen, cluttered storage areas, recently flooded areas, basement areas, plumbing spaces, areas with poor ventilation and outdoors in humid environments. Symptoms caused by mold allergy are watery, itchy eyes, a chronic cough, headaches or migraines, difficulty breathing, rashes, tiredness, sinus problems, nasal blockage and frequent sneezing.
[edit] Growth in buildings and homesMain articles: Mold growth, assessment, and remediation and Indoor air quality
Mold growth in buildings can lead to a variety of health issues. Various practices can be followed to mitigate mold issues in buildings, the most important of which is to reduce moisture levels that can facilitate mold growth.[6] Removal of affected materials after the source of moisture has been reduced and/or eliminated may be necessary for remediation.
[edit] GalleryBread mold is one of the most common types of mold, and can cover a loaf of bread in less than three days.
Moldy nectarines that were in a refrigerator. The nectarine with black mold is also affecting the nectarine underneath.
The mold that attacks bread is extremely common, and can cover a loaf almost completely within three days.
A bowl of moldy strawberries after being left in a room for several days.
Mold cultured from dust shaken from an automotive cabin air filter. 10× objective, 15× eyepiece; each numbered tick is 122 µm.
Mold grown from a nasal mucus sample. 10× objective, 15× eyepiece; each numbered tick is 122 µm.
Mildew from a wooden soap holder. Numbered ticks are 11 µm apart.
Mildew growing on a plastic shower curtain. 10× objective, 15× eyepiece; each numbered tick is 122 µm.
Mycelium of unidentified mold. This image covers a one-millimeter square.
Another mycelium, of another mold. Numbered ticks are 230 µm apart.
Stilton cheese contains edible mold.
A moldy tomato
Moldy bread
Detailed picture of mold on tomato
Moldy coffee
Mold on rice
disaster is a natural or man-made hazard that has come to fruition, resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. A disaster can be ostensively defined as any tragic event with great loss stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions.
In contemporary academia, disasters are seen as the consequence of inappropriately managed risk. These risks are the product of hazards and vulnerability. Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability are not considered a disaster, as is the case in uninhabited regions.[1]
Developing countries suffer the greatest costs when a disaster hits – more than 95 percent of all deaths caused by disasters occur in developing countries, and losses due to natural disasters are 20 times greater (as a percentage of GDP) in developing countries than in industrialized countries.[2][3]
Contents [hide]
1 Etymology
2 Classification
2.1 Natural disaster
2.2 Man-made disaster
3 Management
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links
[edit] EtymologyThe word disaster is derived from Middle French désastre and that from Old Italian disastro, which in turn comes from the Greek pejorative prefix δυσ-, (dus-) "bad"[4] + ἀστήρ (aster), "star".[5] The root of the word disaster ("bad star" in Greek) comes from an astrological theme in which the ancients used to refer to the destruction or deconstruction of a star as a disaster.
[edit] ClassificationResearchers have been studying disasters for more than a century, and for more than forty years disaster research has been institutionaliz the University of Delaware's Disaster Research Center. The studies reflect a common opinion when they argue that all disasters can be seen as being human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can prevent it developing into a disaster. All disasters are hence the result of human failure to introduce appropriate disaster management measures.[6] Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, where there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding.
[edit] Natural disasterMain article: Natural disaster
A natural disaster is a consequence when a natural calamity affects humans and/or the built environment. Human vulnerability, and often a lack of appropriate emergency management, leads to financial, environmental, or human impact. The resulting loss depends on the capacity of the population to support or resist the disaster: their resilience. This understanding is concentrated in the formulation: "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability". A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability.
Various disasters like earthquake, landslides, volcanic eruptions, flood and cyclones are natural hazards that kill thousands of people and destroy billions of dollars of habitat and property each year. The rapid growth of the world's population and its increased concentration often in hazardous environment has escalated both the frequency and severity of natural disasters. With the tropical climate and unstable land forms, coupled with deforestation, unplanned growth proliferation non-engineered constructions which make the disaster-prone areas more vulnerable, tardy communication, poor or no budgetary allocation for disaster prevention, developing countries suffer more or less chronically by natural disasters. Asia tops the list of casualties due to natural disasters.
Among various natural hazards, earthquakes, landslides, floods and cyclones are the major disasters adversely affecting very large areas and population in the Indian sub-continent. These natural disasters are of (i) geophysical origin such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, land slides and (ii) climatic origin such as drought, flood, cyclone, locust, forest fire. Though it may not be possible to control nature and to stop the development of natural phenomena but the efforts could be made to avoid disasters and alleviate their effects on human lives, infrastructure and property. Rising frequency, amplitude and number of natural disasters and attendant problem coupled with loss of human lives prompted the General Assembly of the United Nations to proclaim 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) through a resolution 44/236 of December 22, 1989 to focus on all issues related to natural disaster reduction. In spite of IDNDR, there had been a string of major disaster throughout the decade. Nevertheless, by establishing the rich disaster management related traditions and by spreading public awareness the IDNDR provided required stimulus for disaster reduction. It is almost impossible to prevent the occurrence of natural disasters and their damages.
However, it is possible to reduce the impact of disasters by adopting suitable disaster mitigation strategies. Disaster mitigation mainly addresses the following:
minimize the potential risks by developing disaster early warning strategies
prepare and implement developmental plans to provide resilience to such disasters,
mobilize resources including communication and tele-medicinal services
to help in rehabilitation and post-disaster reduction.
Disaster management, on the other hand involves:
pre-disaster planning, preparedness, monitoring including relief management capability
prediction and early warning
damage assessment and relief management.
Disaster reduction is a systematic work which involves with different regions, different professions and different scientific fields, and has become an important measure for human and nature sustainable development.
[edit] Man-made disasterMain article: Man-made disasters
Airplane crashes and terrorist attacks are examples of man-made disasters: they cause pollution, kill people, and damage property.[edit] ManagementMain articles: Emergency management and Business continuity planning
The local communities at the time of disaster or before the disaster make groups for helping the people from suffering during the disaster. These groups include First Aid group, Health group, Food and Welfare group etc. They all are well trained by some local community members. All the groups are sent for helping any other local community that is suffering from a disaster. They also ask people to move from the area affected from disaster to some other safe regions. They are given shelter and every possible facilities by those local management communities. Today, Government is also making effort to provide good facilities during the disaster. In India, in the rural areas, the community (group of families) are choosing a leader and developing their Disaster management skills to protect themselves and other local communities as well.
This section requires expansion.
[edit] See also Disasters portal
Act of God
Civil protection
Crisis
Disaster medicine
Disaster convergence
Emergency
Emergency management
Human extinction
List of disasters
Maritime disasters
Risk governance
Risk
Risks to civilization, humans and planet Earth
Sociology of disaster
Survivalism
The Klaxon.com
Disaster film
[edit] References^ Quarantelli E.L. (1998). Where We Have Been and Where We Might Go. In: Quarantelli E.L. (ed). What Is A Disaster? London: Routledge. pp146-159
^ "World Bank:Disaster Risk Management". http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTURBANDEVELOPMENT/EXTDISMGMT/0,,menuPK:341021~pagePK:149018~piPK:149093~theSitePK:341015,00.html.
^ Luis Flores Ballesteros. "Who’s getting the worst of natural disasters?" 54 Pesos May. 2010:54 Pesos 04 Oct 2008.
^ "Dus, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2328613.
^ "Aster, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus". http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2316528.
^ B. Wisner, P. Blaikie, T. Cannon, and I. Davis (2004). At Risk - Natural hazards, people's vulnerability and disasters. Wiltshire: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-25216-4
[edit] Further readingBarton A.H. (1969). Communities in Disaster. A Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations. SI: Ward Lock
Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of Disaster. Susanna M. Hoffman and Anthony Oliver-Smith, Eds.. Santa Fe NM: School of American Research Press, 2002
G. Bankoff, G. Frerks, D. Hilhorst (eds.) (2003). Mapping Vulnerability: Disasters, Development and People. ISBN 1-85383-964-7.
D. Alexander (2002). Principles of Emergency planning and Management. Harpended: Terra publishing. ISBN 1-903544-10-6.
[edit] External links The Wikibook History has a page on the topic of
Historical Disasters and Tragedies
Find more about Disaster on Wikipedia's sister projects:
Definitions from Wiktionary
Images and media from Commons
Learning resources from Wikiversity
News stories from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Source texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
The Disaster Roundtable Information on past and future Disaster Roundtable workshops
EM-DAT The EM-DAT International Disaster Database
RSOE EDIS Emergency and Disaster Information Service An up-to-the-minute world wide map showing current disasters.
Articles On Food Shortage - Food Shortage Information.
Global Disaster Alert and Coordination System A United Nations and European Commission sponsored website for disaster information.
United Nations Programme for Space-based Information for Disaster Management and Emergency Response United Nations programme covering the full disaster management cycle with usage of space technology
Top 100 aviation disasters on AirDisaster.com
Disaster Video Archive Archive Footage of Major Disasters
Guinness Book of World Records
The world's worst massacres Whole Earth Review
War Disaster and Genocide
Geohotspots
Disaster Video Disaster News and Video
Disaster Alert Notification and Reporting
The Disaster News Network - Live Monitors and Updates about Disasters
The Calamity of Disaster - Recognizing the possibilities, planning for the event, managing crisis and coping with the effects.
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Edit this pageA flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land.[1] The EU Floods directive defines a flood as a temporary covering by water of land not normally covered by water.[2] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Flooding may result from the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, which overflows or breaks levees, with the result that some of the water escapes its usual boundaries.[3]
While the size of a lake or other body of water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, it is not a significant flood unless such escapes of water endanger land areas used by man like a village, city or other inhabited area.
Floods can also occur in rivers, when flow exceeds the capacity of the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders. Floods often cause damage to homes and businesses if they are placed in natural flood plains of rivers. While flood damage can be virtually eliminated by moving away from rivers and other bodies of water, since time out of mind, people have lived and worked by the water to seek sustenance and capitalize on the gains of cheap and easy travel and commerce by being near water. That humans continue to inhabit areas threatened by flood damage is evidence that the perceived value of living near the water exceeds the cost of repeated periodic flooding.
The word "flood" comes from the Old English flod, a word common to Germanic languages (compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float; also compare with Latin fluctus, flumen). Deluge myths are mythical stories of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution, and are featured in the mythology of many cultures.
Contents [hide]
1 Principal types and causes
1.1 Riverine
1.2 Estuarine
1.3 Coastal
1.4 Catastrophic
1.5 Human-induced
1.6 Muddy
1.7 Other
2 Effects
2.1 Primary effects
2.2 Secondary effects
2.3 Tertiary/long-term effects
3 Control
3.1 Europe
3.2 North America
3.3 Asia
3.4 Africa
3.5 Clean-up safety
4 Benefits
5 Computer modelling
6 Deadliest floods
7 See also
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links
Principal types and causesRiverineSlow kinds: Runoff from sustained rainfall or rapid snow melt exceeding the capacity of a river's channel. Causes include heavy rains from monsoons, hurricanes and tropical depressions, foreign winds and warm rain affecting snow pack. Unexpected drainage obstructions such as landslides, ice, or debris can cause slow flooding upstream of the obstruction.
Fast kinds: include flash floods resulting from convective precipitation (intense thunderstorms) or sudden release from an upstream impoundment created behind a dam, landslide, or glacier.
EstuarineCommonly caused by a combination of sea tidal surges caused by storm-force winds. A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category.
CoastalCaused by severe sea storms, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. tsunami or hurricane). A storm surge, from either a tropical cyclone or an extratropical cyclone, falls within this category.
CatastrophicCaused by a significant and unexpected event e.g. dam breakage, or as a result of another hazard (e.g. earthquake or volcanic eruption).
Human-inducedAccidental damage by workmen to tunnels or pipes.
MuddyA muddy flood is produced by an accumulation of runoff generated on cropland. Sediments are then detached by runoff and carried as suspended matter or bed load. Muddy runoff is more likely detected when it reaches inhabited areas. Muddy floods are therefore a hill slope process, and confusion with mudflows produced by mass movements should be avoided.
OtherFloods can occur if water accumulates across an impermeable surface (e.g. from rainfall) and cannot rapidly dissipate (i.e. gentle orientation or low evaporation).
A series of storms moving over the same area.
Dam-building beavers can flood low-lying urban and rural areas, often causing significant damage.
EffectsPrimary effectsPhysical damage – Can damage any type of structure, including bridges, cars, buildings, sewerage systems, roadways, and canals.
Secondary effectsWater supplies – Contamination of water. Clean drinking water becomes scarce.
Diseases – Unhygienic conditions. Spread of water-borne diseases.
Crops and food supplies – Shortage of food crops can be caused due to loss of entire harvest.[4] However, lowlands near rivers depend upon river silt deposited by floods in order to add nutrients to the local soil.
Trees – Non-tolerant species can die from suffocation.[5]
Transport - Transport links destroyed, so hard to get emergency aid to those who need it.
Tertiary/long-term effectsEconomic – Economic hardship, due to: temporary decline in tourism, rebuilding costs, food shortage leading to price increase, etc.
ControlMain article: Flood control
Autumn Mediterranean flooding in Alicante (Spain), 1997.
The River Berounka, Czech Republic, burst its banks in the 2002 European floods and houses in the village of Hlásná Třebaň, Beroun District, were inundated.
Debris and bank erosion left after the 2009 Red River Flood in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
Pittsburgh floods in 1936
Flooding near Snoqualmie, Washington, 2009.
Floods in Bangladesh 2009In many countries across the world, rivers prone to floods are often carefully managed. Defenses such as levees,[6] bunds, reservoirs, and weirs are used to prevent rivers from bursting their banks. When these defenses fail, emergency measures such as sandbags or portable inflatable tubes are used. Coastal flooding has been addressed in Europe and the Americas with coastal defences, such as sea walls, beach nourishment, and barrier islands.
EuropeRemembering the misery and destruction caused by the 1910 Great Flood of Paris, the French government built a series of reservoirs called Les Grands Lacs de Seine (or Great Lakes) which helps remove pressure from the Seine during floods, especially the regular winter flooding.[7]
London is protected from sea flooding by the Thames Barrier, a huge mechanical barrier across the River Thames, which is raised when the sea water level reaches a certain point.
Venice has a similar arrangement, although it is already unable to cope with very high tides; a new system of variable-height dikes is under construction. The defences of both London and Venice would be rendered inadequate if sea levels were to rise.
The Adige in Northern Italy was provided with an underground canal that allows to drain part of its flow into the Garda Lake (in the Po drainage basin), thus lessening the risk of estuarine floods. The underground canal has been used twice, in 1966 and 2000.
The largest and most elaborate flood defences can be found in the Netherlands, where they are referred to as Delta Works with the Oosterschelde dam as its crowning achievement. These works were built in response to the North Sea flood of 1953 of the southwestern part of the Netherlands. The Dutch had already built one of the world's largest dams in the north of the country: the Afsluitdijk (closing occurred in 1932).
Currently the Saint Petersburg Flood Prevention Facility Complex is to be finished by 2008, in Russia, to protect Saint Petersburg from storm surges. It also has a main traffic function, as it completes a ring road around Saint Petersburg. Eleven dams extend for 25.4 kilometres and stand eight metres above water level.
In Austria, flooding for over 150 years, has been controlled by various actions of the Vienna Danube regulation, with dredging of the main Danube during 1870–75, and creation of the New Danube from 1972–1988.
In Northern Ireland flood risk management is provided by Rivers Agency.
North AmericaAnother elaborate system of floodway defences can be found in the Canadian province of Manitoba. The Red River flows northward from the United States, passing through the city of Winnipeg (where it meets the Assiniboine River) and into Lake Winnipeg. As is the case with all north-flowing rivers in the temperate zone of the Northern Hemisphere, snowmelt in southern sections may cause river levels to rise before northern sections have had a chance to completely thaw. This can lead to devastating flooding, as occurred in Winnipeg during the spring of 1950. To protect the city from future floods, the Manitoba government undertook the construction of a massive system of diversions, dikes, and floodways (including the Red River Floodway and the Portage Diversion). The system kept Winnipeg safe during the 1997 flood that devastated many communities upriver from Winnipeg, including Grand Forks, North Dakota and Ste. Agathe, Manitoba. It also kept Winnipeg safe during the 2009 flood.
In the U.S., the New Orleans Metropolitan Area, 35% of which sits below sea level, is protected by hundreds of miles of levees and flood gates. This system failed catastrophically, in numerous sections, during Hurricane Katrina, in the city proper and in eastern sections of the Metro Area, resulting in the inundation of approximately 50% of the metropolitan area, ranging from a few centimetres to 8.2 metres (a few inches to 27 feet) in coastal communities.[8] In an act of successful flood prevention, the Federal Government of the United States offered to buy out flood-prone properties in the United States in order to prevent repeated disasters after the 1993 flood across the Midwest. Several communities accepted and the government, in partnership with the state, bought 25,000 properties which they converted into wetlands. These wetlands act as a sponge in storms and in 1995, when the floods returned, the government did not have to expend resources in those areas.[9]:)
AsiaIn India, Bangladesh and China, flood diversion areas are rural areas that are deliberately flooded in emergencies in order to protect cities.[10]
Many have proposed that loss of vegetation (deforestation) will lead to a risk increase. With natural forest cover the flood duration should decrease. Reducing the rate of deforestation should improve the incidents and severity of floods.[11]
AfricaIn Egypt, both the Aswan Dam (1902) and the Aswan High Dam (1976) have controlled various amounts of flooding along the Nile river.
Clean-up safetyClean-up activities following floods often pose hazards to workers and volunteers involved in the effort. Potential dangers include: water polluted by mixing with and causing overflows from sanitary sewers, electrical hazards, carbon monoxide exposure, musculoskeletal hazards, heat or cold stress, motor vehicle-related dangers, fire, drowning, and exposure to hazardous materials.[12] Because flooded disaster sites are unstable, clean-up workers might encounter sharp jagged debris, biological hazards in the flood water, exposed electrical lines, blood or other body fluids, and animal and human remains. In planning for and reacting to flood disasters, managers provide workers with hard hats, goggles, heavy work gloves, life jackets, and watertight boots with steel toes and insoles.[13]
BenefitsThere are many disruptive effects of flooding on human settlements and economic activities. However, floods (in particular the more frequent/smaller floods) can also bring many benefits, such as recharging ground water, making soil more fertile and providing nutrients in which it is deficient. Flood waters provide much needed water resources in particular in arid and semi-arid regions where precipitation events can be very unevenly distributed throughout the year. Freshwater floods in particular play an important role in maintaining ecosystems in river corridors and are a key factor in maintaining floodplain biodiversity.[14] Flooding adds a lot of nutrients to lakes and rivers which leads to improved fisheries for a few years, also because of the suitability of a floodplain for spawning (little predation and a lot of nutrients).[15] Fish like the weather fish make use of floods to reach new habitats. Together with fish also birds profit from the boost in production caused by flooding.[16]
Periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Ganges and the Yellow River, among others. The viability for hydrological based renewable sources of energy is higher in flood prone regions.
Computer modellingWhile flood modelling is a fairly recent practice, attempts to understand and manage the mechanisms at work in floodplains have been made for at least six millennia.[17] The recent development in computational flood modelling has enabled engineers to step away from the tried and tested "hold or break" approach and its tendency to promote overly engineered structures. Various computational flood models have been developed in recent years either 1D models (flood levels measured in the channel) and 2D models (flood depth measured for the extent of the floodplain). HEC-RAS,[18] the Hydraulic Engineering Centre model, is currently among the most popular if only because it is available for free. Other models such as TUFLOW[19] combine 1D and 2D components to derive flood depth in the floodplain. So far the focus has been on mapping tidal and fluvial flood events but the 2007 flood events in the UK have shifted the emphasis onto the impact of surface water flooding.[20]
Deadliest floodsMain article: List of deadliest floods
Below is a list of the deadliest floods worldwide, showing events with death tolls at or above 100,000 individuals.
Death toll Event Location Date
2,500,000–3,700,000[21] 1931 China floods China 1931
900,000–2,000,000 1887 Yellow River (Huang He) flood China 1887
500,000–700,000 1938 Yellow River (Huang He) flood China 1938
231,000 Banqiao Dam failure, result of Typhoon Nina. Approximately 86,000 people died from flooding and another 145,000 died during subsequent disease. China 1975
230,000 Indian Ocean tsunami Indonesia 2004
145,000 1935 Yangtze river flood China 1935
100,000+ St. Felix's Flood, storm surge Netherlands 1530
100,000 Hanoi and Red River Delta flood North Vietnam 1971
100,000 1911 Yangtze river flood China 1911
See also Environment portal
Ecology portal
Chicago Flood, man-made flood under downtown Chicago
Disaster preparedness
Flood control in the Netherlands
Flood pulse concept
Flood Risk Assessment
Floods directive
Floods in Australia
Floods in the Netherlands
Floods in the United States
List of floods
SMS (hydrology software)
Storm tides of the North Sea
References^ MSN Encarta Dictionary. Flood. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. Archived 2009-10-31.
^ Directive 2007/60/EC Chapter 1 Article2
^ Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). Flood. Retrieved on 2009-01-09.
^ Southasianfloods.org
^ Stephen Bratkovich, Lisa Burban, et al., "Flooding and its Effects on Trees", USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry, St. Paul, MN, September 1993, webpage: Na.fs.fed.us-flood-cover.
^ Henry Petroski (2006). Levees and Other Raised Ground. 94. American Scientist. pp. 7–11.
^ See Jeffrey H. Jackson, Paris Under Water: How the City of Light Survived the Great Flood of 1910 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
^ United States Department of Commerce (June 2006). "Hurricane Katrina Service Assessment Report" (PDF). http://www.weather.gov/om/assessments/pdfs/Katrina.pdf. Retrieved 2006-07-14.
^ Amanda Ripley. "Floods, Tornadoes, Hurricanes, Wildfires, Earthquakes... Why We Don't Prepare." Time. August 28, 2006.
^ "China blows up seventh dike to divert flooding." China Daily. 2003-07-07.
^ Bradshaw CJ, Sodhi NS, Peh SH, Brook BW. (2007). Global evidence that deforestation amplifies flood risk and severity in the developing. Also a flood has recently hit Pakistan which is said to be more devastating then the Tsunami of 2005 world. Global Change Biology, 13: 2379–2395.
^ United States National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Storm and Flood Cleanup. Accessed 23 September 2008.
^ NIOSH. NIOSH Warns of Hazards of Flood Cleanup Work. NIOSH Publication No. 94-123.
^ WMO/GWP Associated Programme on Flood Management "Environmental Aspects of Integrated Flood Management." WMO, 2007
^ Extension of the Flood Pulse Concept
^ Birdlife soars above Botswana's floodplains
^ Dyhouse, G. et al. "Flood modelling Using HEC-RAS (First Edition)." Haestad Press, Waterbury (USA), 2003.
^ United States Army Corps of Engineers. Davis, CA. Hydrologic Engineering Center.
^ BMT WBM Ltd. Spring Hill, Queensland. "TUFLOW Flood and Tide Simulation Software."
^ Cabinet Office, UK. "Pitt Review: Lessons learned from the 2007 floods." June 2008.
^ Worst Natural Disasters In History
BibliographyO'Connor, Jim E. and John E. Costa. (2004). The World's Largest Floods, Past and Present: Their Causes and Magnitudes [Circular 1254]. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey.
Thompson, M.T. (1964). Historical Floods in New England [Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1779-M]. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office.
Powell, W. Gabe. 2009. Identifying Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) Using National Agriculture Imagery Program (NAIP) Data as a Hydrologic Model Input for Local Flood Plain Management. Applied Research Project. Texas State University – San Marcos.
External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Flood
Wikinews has related news: Flood
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive and inappropriate external links. (January 2011)
Website on the Great Flood of Paris in 1910
U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Healthy Water – Flood Water Exposure Health risks, cleanup of flood waters, and links to flood resources
American Water Resources Association
Associated Programme on Flood Management from World Meteorological Organization
Dartmouth Flood Observatory
Decision tree to choose an uncertainty method for hydrological and hydraulic modelling, Choosing an uncertainty analysis for flood modeling.
DeltaWorks.Org Flood protecting dams and barriers project in the Netherlands
Video: Monsoon flooding, in Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Europe floods 2006
Flood Risk Management Research Consortium
International Flood Initiative
International teaching module "Integrated Flood Risk Management of Extreme Events" (Floodmaster)
Predictions Off for Global Warming Flood Risk – Study.
Protecting against the Next Katrina – Scientific American Magazine (October 2005)
Related articles at Appropedia, a wiki for non-Wikipedia (projects & practical "how to") content.
Safecoast Knowledge exchange on coastal flooding and climate change in the North Sea region
Social & Economic Benefits/Costs of Heavy Rain & Flooding NOAA Economics
Riversagencyni.gov.uk, Rivers Agency of Northern Ireland
[hide]v · d · eNatural disasters
Land movement Avalanches • Earthquakes • Lahar • Mudflows • Volcanic eruptions
Water Floods • Limnic eruptions • Tsunami
Weather Blizzards • Cyclonic storms • Droughts • Hailstorms • Heat waves • Tornadoes
Fire Wildfire
Health and diseases Epidemic • Famine
Space Gamma-ray burst • Impact events • Solar flares • Supernova • Hypernova
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flood"
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Categories: Basic meteorological concepts and phenomena | Weather | Flood | Weather hazards | Water | Water waves | Hydrology
Hidden categories: Wikipedia pages semi-protected against vandalism | Wikipedia protected pages without expiry | Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages | Wikipedia external links cleanup from January 2011 | Wikipedia spam cleanup from January 2011
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Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Mobile view
Maybe later Sewage pumping is normally done by a submersible pump.
This became popular in the early 1960s, when a guide-rail system was developed to lift the submersible pump out of the pump station for repair, and ended the dirty and sometimes dangerous task of sending people into the sewage or wet pit. Growth of the submersible pump for sewage pumping since has been dramatic, as an increasing number of specifiers and developers learned of their advantages.
Three classes of submersible pumps exist:
Smaller submersible pumps, used in domestic and light commercial applications, normally handle up to 55mm spherical solids and range from 0.75kW to 2.2kW.
Larger submersible pumps, handle 65mm and larger solids and normally have a minimum of 80mm discharge. They are generally used in municipal and industrial applications for pumping sewage and all types of industrial wastewater.
Submersible chopper pumps, which are used to handle larger concentrations of solids and/or tougher solids that conventional sewage pumps cannot handle. Chopper pumps are generally used in municipal and industrial wastewater applications and provide clog-free operation by macerating those solids that might clog other types of submersible pumps.
Submersible pumps are normally used in a packaged pump station where drainage by gravity is not possible.
Vertical type sewage pumps have also been used for many years. They have the motor above the floor so work on the motor can be done without entering the sewage pit.
[edit] See alsoSewage treatment
Pumping station
Packaged pump station
Submersible pump
Chopper pumps
[edit] LiteratureD. Weismann, T. Gutzeit: Kommunale Abwasserpumpwerke. 2nd edition, VULKAN-Verlag, Germany 2006, ISBN 978-3-8027-2843-3
D. Weismann, M. Lohse: Sulfid-Praxishandbuch der Abwassertechnik; Geruch, Gefahr, Korrosion verhindern und Kosten beherrschen! 1st edition, VULKAN-Verlag, Germany 2007, ISBN 978-3-8027-2845-7
This waste-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.v · d · e
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_pumping"
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Categories: Sewerage infrastructure | Waste stubs
Hidden categories: Articles lacking sources from July 2007 | All articles lacking sources
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Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Mobile view Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material in the chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.[1] Slower oxidative processes like rusting or digestion are not included by this definition.
The flame is the visible portion of the fire and consists of glowing hot gases. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma.[2] Depending on the substances alight, and any impurities outside, the color of the flame and the fire's intensity will be different.
Fire in its most common form can result in conflagration, which has the potential to cause physical damage through burning. Fire is an important process that affects ecological systems across the globe. The positive effects of fire include stimulating growth and maintaining various ecological systems. Fire has been used by humans for cooking, generating heat, signaling, and propulsion purposes. The negative effects of fire include water contamination, soil erosion, atmospheric pollution and hazard to human life.[3]
Contents [hide]
1 Physical properties
1.1 Chemistry
1.2 Flame
1.3 Heat
1.3.1 Typical temperatures of fires and flames
1.3.2 Temperatures of flames by appearance
2 Fire Ecology
3 Fossil record
4 Human control
4.1 Use as fuel
5 Protection and prevention
6 Restoration
7 See also
8 Additional images
9 References
10 Bibliography
11 External links
Physical propertiesChemistryMain article: Combustion
The fire tetrahedronFires start when a flammable and/or a combustible material, in combination with a sufficient quantity of an oxidizer such as oxygen gas or another oxygen-rich compound (though non-oxygen oxidizers exist that can replace oxygen), is exposed to a source of heat or ambient temperature above the flash point for the fuel/oxidizer mix, and is able to sustain a rate of rapid oxidation that produces a chain reaction. This is commonly called the fire tetrahedron. Fire cannot exist without all of these elements in place and in the right proportions. For example, a flammable liquid will start burning only if the fuel and oxygen are in the right proportions. Some fuel-oxygen mixes may require a catalyst, a substance that is not directly involved in any chemical reaction during combustion, but which enables the reactants to combust more readily.
Once ignited, a chain reaction must take place whereby fires can sustain their own heat by the further release of heat energy in the process of combustion and may propagate, provided there is a continuous supply of an oxidizer and fuel.
Fire can be extinguished by removing any one of the elements of the fire tetrahedron. Consider a natural gas flame, such as from a stovetop burner. The fire can be extinguished by any of the following:
turning off the gas supply, which removes the fuel source;
covering the flame completely, which smothers the flame as the combustion both uses the available oxidizer (the oxygen in the air) and displaces it from the area around the flame with CO2;
application of water, which removes heat from the fire faster than the fire can produce it (similarly, blowing hard on a flame will displace the heat of the currently burning gas from its fuel source, to the same end), or
application of a retardant chemical such as Halon to the flame, which retards the chemical reaction itself until the rate of combustion is too slow to maintain the chain reaction.
In contrast, fire is intensified by increasing the overall rate of combustion. Methods to do this include balancing the input of fuel and oxidizer to stoichiometric proportions, increasing fuel and oxidizer input in this balanced mix, increasing the ambient temperature so the fire's own heat is better able to sustain combustion, or providing a catalyst; a non-reactant medium in which the fuel and oxidizer can more readily react.
FlameMain article: Flame
A candle's flame
Photo of a fire taken with a 1/4000th of a second exposureA flame is a mixture of reacting gases and solids emitting visible, infrared, and sometimes ultraviolet light, the frequency spectrum of which depends on the chemical composition of the burning material and intermediate reaction products. In many cases, such as the burning of organic matter, for example wood, or the incomplete combustion of gas, incandescent solid particles called soot produce the familiar red-orange glow of 'fire'. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single-wavelength radiation from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but hydrogen burning in chlorine also produces a flame, producing hydrogen chloride (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many, are fluorine and hydrogen, and hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide.
The glow of a flame is complex. Black-body radiation is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also photon emission by de-excited atoms and molecules in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and infrared bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and on chemical makeup for the emission spectra. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, the fire is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) of the United States has recently found that gravity also plays a role in flame formation. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types.[4] The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on convection, as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In micro gravity or zero gravity, such as an environment in outer space, convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient (although it may go out if not moved steadily, as the CO2 from combustion does not disperse as readily in micro gravity, and tends to smother the flame). There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely is that the temperature is sufficiently evenly distributed that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs.[5] Experiments by NASA reveal that diffusion flames in micro gravity allow more soot to be completely oxidized after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behave differently in micro gravity when compared to normal gravity conditions.[6] These discoveries have potential applications in applied science and industry, especially concerning fuel efficiency.
In combustion engines, various steps are taken to eliminate a flame. The method depends mainly on whether the fuel is oil, wood, or a high-energy fuel such as jet fuel.
HeatMain article: Heat
Fires give off heat, or the process of energy transfer from one body or system due to thermal contact.
Typical temperatures of fires and flamesOxyhydrogen flame: 2000 °C or above (3600 °F)[7]
Bunsen burner flame: 1,300 to 1,600 °C (2,400 to 2,900 °F)[8]
Blowtorch flame: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)[9]
Candle flame: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
Smoldering cigarette:
Temperature without drawing: side of the lit portion; 400 °C (750 °F); middle of the lit portion: 585 °C (1,100 °F)
Temperature during drawing: middle of the lit portion: 700 °C (1,300 °F)
Always hotter in the middle.
Temperatures of flames by appearanceThe temperature of flames with carbon particles emitting light can be assessed by their color:[10]
Red
Just visible: 525 °C (980 °F)
Dull: 700 °C (1,300 °F)
Cherry, dull: 800 °C (1,500 °F)
Cherry, full: 900 °C (1,700 °F)
Cherry, clear: 1,000 °C (1,800 °F)
Orange
Deep: 1,100 °C (2,000 °F)
Clear: 1,200 °C (2,200 °F)
White
Whitish: 1,300 °C (2,400 °F)
Bright: 1,400 °C (2,600 °F)
Dazzling: 1,500 °C (2,700 °F)
Fire EcologyMain article: Fire ecology
Every natural ecosystem has its own fire regime, and the organisms in those ecosystems are adapted to or dependent upon that fire regime. Fire creates a mosaic of different habitat patches, each at a different stage of succession.[11] Different species of plants, animals, and microbes specialize in exploiting a particular stage, and by creating these different types of patches, fire allows a greater number of species to exist within a landscape.
Fossil recordMain article: Fossil record of fire
The fossil record of fire first appears with the establishment of a land-based flora in the Middle Ordovician period, 470 million years ago,[12] permitting the accumulation of oxygen in the atmosphere as never before, as the new hordes of land plants pumped it out as a waste product. When this concentration rose above 13%, it permitted the possibility of wildfire.[13] Wildfire is first recorded in the Late Silurian fossil record, 420 million years ago, by fossils of charcoalified plants.[14][15] Apart from a controversial gap in the Late Devonian, charcoal is present ever since.[15] The level of atmospheric oxygen is closely related to the prevalence of charcoal: clearly oxygen is the key factor in the abundance of wildfire.[16] Fire also became more abundant when grasses radiated and became the dominant component of many ecosystems, around 6 to 7 million years ago;[17] this kindling provided tinder which allowed for the more rapid spread of fire.[16] These widespread fires may have initiated a positive feedback process, whereby they produced a warmer, drier climate more conducive to fire.[16]
Human controlMain article: Control of fire by early humans
The fire miracle of Saint Peter Martyr by Antonio Vivarini.The ability to control fire was a dramatic change in the habits of early humans. Making fire to generate heat and light made it possible for people to cook food, increasing the variety and availability of nutrients. The heat produced would also help people stay warm in cold weather, enabling them to live in cooler climates. Fire also kept nocturnal predators at bay. Evidence of cooked food is found from 1.9 million years ago, although fire was probably not used in a controlled fashion until 400,000 years ago.[16] Evidence becomes widespread around 50 to 100 thousand years ago, suggesting regular use from this time; interestingly, resistance to air pollution started to evolve in human populations at a similar point in time.[16] The use of fire became progressively more sophisticated, with its being used to create charcoal and to control wildlife from 'tens of thousands' of years ago.[16]
Fire has also been used for centuries as a method of torture and execution, as evidenced by death by burning as well as torture devices such as the iron boot, which could be filled with water, oil, or even lead and then heated over an open fire to the agony of the wearer.
By the Neolithic Revolution,[citation needed] during the introduction of grain-based agriculture, people all over the world used fire as a tool in landscape management. These fires were typically controlled burns or "cool fires",[citation needed] as opposed to uncontrolled "hot fires", which damage the soil. Hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially a problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and autumn. They clear undergrowth, burning up biomass that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.
There are numerous modern applications of fire. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Users of internal combustion vehicles employ fire every time they drive. Thermal power stations provide electricity for a large percentage of humanity.
Hamburg after four fire-bombing raids in July, 1943, which killed an estimated 50,000 people.[18]The use of fire in warfare has a long history. Fire was the basis of all early thermal weapons. Homer detailed the use of fire by Greek commandos who hid in a wooden horse to burn Troy during the Trojan war. Later the Byzantine fleet used Greek fire to attack ships and men. In the First World War, the first modern flamethrowers were used by infantry, and were successfully mounted on armoured vehicles in the Second World War. In the latter war, incendiary bombs were used by Axis and Allies alike, notably on Tokyo, Rotterdam, London, Hamburg and, notoriously, at Dresden, in the latter two cases firestorms were deliberately caused in which a ring of fire surrounding each city[citation needed] was drawn inward by an updraft caused by a central cluster of fires. The United States Army Air Force also extensively used incendiaries against Japanese targets in the latter months of the war, devastating entire cities constructed primarily of wood and paper houses. The use of napalm was employed in July 1944, towards the end of the Second World War;[19] although its use did not gain public attention until the Vietnam War.[19] Molotov cocktails were also used.
Use as fuel
A coal-fired power station in the People's Republic of China
Disability-adjusted life year for fires per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004.[20]
no data
less than 50
50-100
100-150
150-200
200-250
250-300
300-350
350-400
400-450
450-500
500-600
more than 600Setting fuel aflame releases usable energy. Wood was a prehistoric fuel, and is still viable today. The use of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas and coal, in power plants supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today; the International Energy Agency states that nearly 80% of the world's power comes from these sources.[21] The fire in a power station is used to heat water, creating steam that drives turbines. The turbines then spin an electric generator to produce electricity. Fire is also used to provide mechanical work directly, in both external and internal combustion engines.
The unburnable solid remains of a combustible material left after a fire is called clinker if its melting point is below the flame temperature, so that it fuses and then solidifies as it cools, and ash if its melting point is above the flame temperature.
Protection and preventionMain articles: Wildfire and Fire protection
Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns.[22][23][24] Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn. Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions.[25]
Fire fighting services are provided in most developed areas to extinguish or contain uncontrolled fires. Trained firefighters use fire apparatus, water supply resources such as water mains and fire hydrants or they might use A and B class foam depending on what is feeding the fire.
Fire prevention is intended to reduce sources of ignition. Fire prevention also includes education to teach people how to avoid causing fires.[26] Buildings, especially schools and tall buildings, often conduct fire drills to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes arson and is a crime in most jurisdictions.
Model building codes require passive fire protection and active fire protection systems to minimize damage resulting from a fire. The most common form of active fire protection is fire sprinklers. To maximize passive fire protection of buildings, building materials and furnishings in most developed countries are tested for fire-resistance, combustibility and flammability. Upholstery, carpeting and plastics used in vehicles and vessels are also tested.
Where fire prevention and fire protection have failed to prevent damage, fire insurance can mitigate the financial impact.
RestorationDifferent restoration methods and measures are used depending on the type of fire damage that occurred. Fire damage can be performed by property management teams, building maintenance personnel, or by the homeowners themselves; however, contacting a certified professional fire damage restoration specialist is often regarded as the safest way to restore fire damaged property due to their training and extensive experience.[27] Most are usually listed under "Fire and Water Restoration" and they can help speed repairs, whether for individual homeowners or for the largest of institutions.[28]
Fire and Water Restoration companies are regulated by the appropriate state's Department of Consumer Affairs - usually the state contractors license board. In California, all Fire and Water Restoration companies must register with the California Contractors State License Board.[29] Presently, the California Contractors State License Board has no specific classification for "water and fire damage restoration." Hence, the Contractor's State License Board requires both an asbestos certification (ASB) as well as a demolition classification (C-21) in order to perform Fire and Water Restoration work.[30]
See also
A structure fire Fire portal
Áed (given name)
Colored fire
Combustion
Cremation
Deflagration
Fire (classical element)
Fire investigation
Fire lookout (tower)
Fire pit
Fire whirl
Fire worship
Flame test
Life Safety Code
List of historic fires
List of light sources
Phlogiston theory
Pyranoscope
Pyrokinesis
Pyrolysis
Pyromania
Smoke
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